Unveiling Deepfakes: Confronting 21st Century Online Challenges

The technology-driven 21^st century calls for enriched modes of thinking, living, and working. Today’s educators face a series of challenges in their efforts to equip learners with new as well as old skills. The paper in question presents activities realized within an English-as-Foreign-Language (EFL) context at a Greek Primary school. The aim of the project was to help pupils identify and respond to deepfakes. Genuine communication, collaboration, critical mind, and creativity were on the agenda along with inclusion and agency. The intervention was based on Information Literacy principles, the Digital Competence Framework, and Bloom’s revised taxonomy. Sixth-graders watched situational videos, got updated on digital deceit, analyzed events, laid out perspectives, and sought motives behind attitudes. They looked for their own examples, suggested ways for self-protection, supported each other, generated multimodal products, assessed them via rubrics, disseminated proposals to a wider audience, and evaluated tactics through an online questionnaire. Outcomes comprise increased impetus, autonomy, independence, dynamic participation, accountability, and knowledge co-construction. The above suggests that school can and should play a role in preparing students for the new information age.

Introduction

The digital era has altered the manners children play, communicate, access, and disseminate resources. Young people nowadays are more plugged in than ever, utilizing the Internet for gaming as well as for social networking [1]. Supporting learners in facing 21^st century challenges requires new pedagogies that promote multiple literacies, leverage digital tools, advocate collaboration and peer assistance, prompt problem-solving, and endorse creativity. Teachers may set up authentic settings and establish meaningful experiences to improve apprentices’ capabilities. Pupils may seize ownership of their learning, select paths matching their profile or interests, reflect on and appraise their progress. Motivation may rise when participants discover items through exploration, build and share knowledge via electronic connectedness. New competencies are considered indispensable in a technology-driven life [2].

However, digital renovation can hardly be characterized as keeping pace with innovations in the educational system, the curriculum or school practices. On the one hand, teachers recognize they must back the younger generation in harnessing the web critically, responsibly, and imaginatively so as to survive today. On the other, educators may lack the necessary insight into how digital technologies can successfully boost learning [3].

“Deepfakes”, images or recordings convincingly distorted and manipulated to misrepresent someone as doing or saying something that was not actually done or said [4] are turning out to be a thorn in our times. Detecting and confronting such instances is among the essential skills in the real-world jungle.

The current paper describes a project materialized at a primary school in Greece within an English-as-Foreign-Language (EFL) context. It relied on the Multiliteracies approach, Information Literacy (finding, evaluating, organizing, converting, and distributing data), the European Digital Competence Framework (crucial capacities for thriving in a digital era), Bloom’s taxonomy (categorization of objectives according to mental functions/attitudes/emotions or kinesthetic abilities), the grammar of visual design, and alternative assessment. Post literature review, the methodology employed is defined, whereas discussion and conclusions ensue.

Literature Review

The intervention outlined was grounded on the following axes.

Multiliteracies

“The multiplicity of communications channels and increasing cultural and linguistic diversity in the world today call for a much broader view of literacy than portrayed by traditional language-based approaches” [5]. Multiliteracies stress how dealing with the numerous differences is pivotal to learners’ professional, civic, and private lives. There are multiple literacies: linguistic (oral, written), visual, auditory, tactile, gestural, spatial, etc [5]. Cultivating literacies in school sites prepares children for daily encounters. A pedagogy of multiliteracies is expected to contribute to “learning conditions leading to full and equitable social participation” [5]. Students design, redesign, transform data and themselves. Identifying gains and means to fulfill them, citing personal experiences, becoming familiar with new circumstances, inquiring, collaborating, negotiating, exchanging ideas, examining sources and motives, arriving at decisions, synthesizing and sharing multimodal products, reflecting on strategies and shortcomings constitute examples of multiliteracy practices [6]–[10].

Information Literacy

The first definition of information literacy (IL) comprises the adeptness to diagnose when evidence is demanded, and then trace, evaluate, and apply it accordingly [11]. With Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) now embedded in our existence, IL users who specify their needs, can connect via a computer to the Internet, search for and access digital resources (visual, auditory, and graphic besides written), discern their significance and validity, comprehend the subject matter, associate it, store it in files, operate figures efficiently and ethically, build and distribute knowledge [12], [13]. Assessing the “authenticity and authority” of traced information and spotting its creators are considered indispensable. IL is fundamental for individuals who wish to pursue personal, occupational or educational goals, and contribute effectively to society [13]. IL can be advantageous in civil institutes, health, and safety [14]. IL persons grow up to be self-sufficient, able to progress sustainably, and upgrade their life quality [12].

The European Digital Competence Framework

The European Digital Competence Framework or DigComp (DC) was issued in 2013 [15] and revised in 2016 [16], in 2017 [17], in 2019 [18], and in 2022 [19] intending to assemble a common frame of reference. It defines the digital expertise every citizen should foster in order to prosper in a digital world. It is split into five zones: information and data literacy; communication and collaboration; digital content production, safety; and problem-solving. It stipulates a mutual language, categorizing key areas as well as anticipated learning aftermaths and proficiency rank (e.g., basic, intermediate, advanced). It should be noted that the DigComp style is “descriptive rather than prescriptive”. Users are to correspond competencies, content, and level to national and local circumstances. This enlarges flexibility, but still, efforts are desired so as to adjust DC to particular conditions [18]. DC is currently employed in numerous countries as an open recommendation in channeling school teaching.

The Grammar of Visual Design

The construction of meaning can be of various kinds (verbal, visual, audio, etc.). Semiotic systems are never neutral; they are socially and culturally influenced. Likewise, as the image is ideologically charged [20], it becomes necessary to delve into its connotations, questioning the aims it may advocate [6].

The grammar of visual design [20] refers to a set of rules and practices deployed for message communication. Aligning with Halliday’s [21] metafunctions for language organization, visual meanings can vary in terms of the processes through which characters are depicted (ideational), the relations the represented entities establish with viewers as a result of gaze, social distances, angle or color treatment (interactional) or the placement of elements within an image (textual). As material is being delivered visually across the Internet nowadays, the ability to understand the reason an image is bestowed in a certain way as well as the impact of visual manipulation on the viewer become crucial components of information literacy [12].

Bloom’s Taxonomy

Bloom’s taxonomy [22] is an accredited system in organizing teaching objectives centered on mental functions, changes in attitudes/values/behaviors/emotions, and extension of motor and physical potential. Acquiring knowledge while studying a language encompasses six different structured levels. In the revised edition by Anderson and Krathwohl [23], nouns are replaced with verbs and gerunds to underscore the dynamism of the categorization: Remembering: recognizing, recalling previous experiences; Understanding, perceiving notions, describing, interpreting, classifying, summarizing; Applying, implementing new solutions in everyday settings; Analyzing, discriminating ideas, dividing in segments, showing connections; Evaluating, critiquing, appraising actions and artifacts; Creating, putting together sections into a coherent whole, planning, designing, modifying, founding new relationships. Through their moves, pupils are to climb up the ladder from the lowest to the highest order thinking skills. Teachers and students should understand goals. Teachers may [23]:

• plan and offer suitable instruction,

• devise valid assessment tasks,

• unite instruction and assessment with objectives.

Alternative Assessment

Alternative assessment (AA) is a term intended to describe a range of options to “standardized” kinds of testing measuring memorization of decontextualized items and solitary efforts. Types of AA include class discussion, orderly observation, self/peer assessment, individual or group assignments, portfolios, recordings, rubrics, diaries, questionnaires, audience response systems, games, etc. AA is likely to highlight the attainment of complex outcomes such as “problem-solving, reflecting, synthesizing and creative thinking”. AA may also link instruction and assessment, increase interaction between teachers and learners or learners themselves, and cover diverse learning styles. AA concentrates on gradual development and rather than providing a “snapshot” of achievement, it yields elasticity in the timing and enactment. This in turn may reduce the stress pupils undergo as part of the procedure, ending up in more accurate documentation of their capacities [24].

More precisely, rubric instruments (e.g., Rubistar, iRubric) are digital tools that help the teacher to scaffold learning for most subjects and skills. Account launching is required. Rubrics can be developed by the teacher but also in collaboration with students. They are kept in the cloud and can be downloaded in PDF format or in Excel. They enhance unbiased self/peer evaluation [25]. Timely and appropriate feedback is estimated to advance knowledge. Learners have opportunities to [25]:

• make judgments about their own or peers’ performance through review and critique

• delineate standards and expectations in their work

• trace and analyze their tactics to several issues

• incorporate feedback into their response

• get involved with tasks that have intrinsic value beyond assessment

• get satisfaction from the excellence of their exploration and expansion of metacognition, instead of mere declarative knowledge

Method

Research Questions

• Are primary school sixth-graders alert to deepfakes and their potential consequences?

• Can they get trained to distinguish facts from fake news?

• Can they react/take measures abiding by IL, DigComp and Bloom’s taxonomy principles?

• Can they assess the social origin of produced artefacts?

Context-Participants

The author holds a tenured position as an English language teacher in a Greek primary school. Participants aged 11–12 years (6^th grade) possessed an A1⁺– A2⁻ English language level [26]. In this case, aside from native members, there were a few second-generation immigrants. Lessons took place three times a week on 45’ sessions. Tasks were accomplished in the computer lab and in a classroom, equipped with a personal computer, internet connection, and projection structures. Pupils had been accustomed to retrieving/uploading information from/on the Greek national Learning Management System “e-me,” looking for concepts on online dictionaries, Word processing and PowerPoint presentations, assembling wordclouds, posting on digital walls/school blogs, commenting online, searching the internet for textual or audio-visual material, mediating main points in L2, making short reports, downloading images from free websites (e.g., Pixabay, Unsplash), watching videos/copying links from the YouTube channel, filling-in digital questionnaires, employing short rubrics to evaluate their designs. The intervention lasted three weeks and was mingled with other activities.

Aims and Objectives

The scheme pursued the Greek Integrated Foreign Languages Curriculum for Primary schools [27]. Aims comprised learner agency, critical thinking, inductive reasoning, accountability, and metacognition. Inclusion and interaction among all members were also aspired. Participants were expected to:

• engage out of inherent motives (to face an actual problem),

• identify information needs,

• understand the content (videos, texts) through context, dictionaries (e.g., WordReference), peers /teachers,

• recognize text type, author, audience, communicative purpose,

• select, organize data, summarize main points,

• write a short report and upload it on the school blog,

• interpret transmitted linguistic/audiovisual/kinesthetic messages bestowing their cognitive, socio-cultural background,

• associate events to prior knowledge/experiences and exchange views,

• compare videos and classify them according to the demonstration of ideas or affairs,

• analyze literal or metaphorical functions of words /phrases in relation to their meaning,

• detect visual metafunctions and intentions behind them,

• express opinion/feelings about deepfakes,

• find evidence from websites and mediate it into English,

• create wordclouds of the most important notions and post them on digital walls,

• comment/respond to written comments on digital walls,

• ask for and provide help or clarifications to peers,

• locate deepfakes and scrutinize them,

• specify ways to protect oneself and others,

• collaborate in groups to compose traditional/multimodal texts (Framapad, Canva presentations),

• perceive the benefits of team spirit,

• report to the plenary, offer/receive feedback, improve work,

• assess self/peers via rubrics (artifacts and relative process),

• disseminate products on a school blog/LMS,

• engage in a debate, exchange arguments,

• evaluate tasks and steps via electronic questionnaires (e.g., Google Forms),

• cater for universal well-being,

• realize their power to influence society.

Procedure

Inspiration for this series of endeavors sprang from videos circulating online. First of all, sixth-graders mentioned whether they were familiar with video-watching on YouTube/TikTok channels (knowing). Then, the teacher showed a short video in which a journalist on a foreign network seemed updating spectators in English about recent facts in Ukraine. Captions referring to daily victims’ numbers appeared at the bottom of the screen. In the background lay bodies in black bags giving the impression of cadavers. Students, aware of the conflict between Russia and Ukraine, immediately tied the clip to casualties. Suddenly, someone among the “bodies” was seen to uncover himself and speak to another person, thus refuting the dead corpses hypothesis. These images yielded food for multiple interpretations and articulation of feelings (understanding). With teacher/peer assistance class members tried to comprehend necessary concepts. They sought video creator, purpose, and anticipated audience (analyzing). After a web search through keywords, the actual clip details were disclosed: animate people in Austria protesting against environmental pollution implying the latter kills humanity. Parallelisms with prior assumptions were advanced (understanding). The term deepfake was introduced and speculations as to the motives of original meaning alteration came forward (remembering, analyzing). Pupils were then prompted to report any recollection of many bodies being publicly exhibited and apparent reasons. A few of them remembered some COVID-19 instances (remembering). In addition, the placement of captions at the bottom (the “real” element of victims) and of bodies (the “mysterious”) in the background was documented. Learners noticed the direct look of the reporter presumed to bond him with viewers as he was theoretically telling them the truth. They began scrutinizing moving picture exploitation, the manners it may be distorted, and probable deepfaking consequences (analyzing). They also undertook to summarize the whole situation–embracing their beliefs–in English in a short report for their school blog (understanding) (DC 1.2, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 4.3).

In another session, participants watched a video where a young boy was allegedly toddling alone on the outer edge of a railing, risking falling into a deep cliff. They were then asked to verbalize thoughts and sentiments (understanding). Later, the end of the clip was projected, the true spot where the boy was standing, a common park, indicating that the video had been tampered with. The left side, the “given”, a safe park, was substituted by a threatening cliff. As a result, the right side, the “new”, the stumbling boy, was intended to cause a shiver. Learners started guessing potential grounds for video modification (analyzing) (DC 1.2).

A third video was also introduced: someone had recorded on camera the “official” filming of a COVID patient (supposedly) having trouble walking, being escorted to an ambulance by doctors in special suits (so as to avoid contamination). The long shot of parading characters and the connotations around it were brought into attention. The action moving from right to left suggested an oriental reading fashion, implying the scene was probably taking place in China where strict measures were assumed towards COVID patients. Analogies were drawn with the previous manipulated videos so as to investigate the intentions behind deepfake (understanding). In all three cases, controversy was raised concerning concrete happenings, insinuations for video inventors, the impact of deepfake on target addressees, the degree of trust towards news/online video clips, modes of protection or reaction, and multiple perspectives emerged. Students came to appreciate the learning purpose of clip projection (analyzing, evaluating) (DC 1.2).

In the computer lab, pupils (in dyads or individually according to preferences and personal computer availability) made lists of the most important concepts, and generated wordclouds on Wordclouds.com (applying) (DC 5.2, 5.4). They posted their clouds on their LMS (e-me) wall (creating) where everybody had access and could write remarks (evaluating) (DC 2.1, 2.2, 2.6). The e-me platform is considered a safe educational environment since only accredited Greek school members may enter (DC 4.1, 4.2, 4.4, 5.3).

The next stage involved sixth-graders splitting into four groups following preferences and linguistic readiness in English (L2). Each member had a distinct role (secretary, researcher, presenter, technician). After ascertaining information needs, representatives commenced looking on recommended sites for a) details pertaining to deepfakes, b) characteristics and types of deepfakes, c) ways to spot deepfakes and get protected, d) examples of deepfakes on YouTube channels (or other websites) (remembering, analyzing) (DC 4.3). They browsed, compared, and filtered sources and content, storing the most useful ones (understanding, analyzing) (DC 1.1, 1.2, 1.3). They kept notes, mediated from L1 (Greek) to L2 (English), and drafted short paragraphs on an online collaborative application (Framapad) to which entry was provided through a link on the LMS wall (applying). Passwords were not required and contributions could be furnished either anonymously or via nicknames (DC 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.6, 4.2). Children respected their duties assisting one another in tracking the right steps (DC 5.1, 5.2). They managed to find excerpts of Greek prime ministers/the (late) queen of the U.K./singers whose sayings were seriously customized (applying) (DC 1.2). Newly located videos were submitted on the LMS wall where all classmates could post and reply to comments (evaluating). Pupils were already familiar with expressions and netiquette attached to online conduct from previous lessons (remembering, applying) (DC 2.5). Subsequent class projection triggered further discussion, deeper analysis of aspects, negotiation of impressions, and peer consultation of what to include or dismiss (analyzing) (DC 2.3, 2.6). With teacher support and relying on her Gmail account (DC 2.6, 4.2), learners transferred data to a Canva presentation, enriched with audiovisual material (incorporating hyperlinks or source acknowledgment) (DC 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4), and opened to the plenary (creating) (DC 3.1, 3.2, 3.3). In case alterations were proposed, users proceeded into necessary improvements. Participants seemed to enjoy learning from one another. They assessed the multimodal artifact as well as its course upon rubrics–supplied either in PDF format uploaded on the LMS or through a link (evaluating) (DC 1.2). All over the project, they estimated their effectiveness in identifying deepfakes and possible shortages in coping with such conditions (evaluating) (DC 5.4).

Finally, pupils were divided anew into two groups so as to propagandize in favor or against deepfakes. Each side prepared their arguments and then engaged in a short debate (creating, evaluating). In the end, they filled in an anonymous electronic questionnaire where they appraised collaboration, tasks, and outcomes (evaluating) (DC 2.6, 4.2, 5.4).

Discussion

The venture devised was based on Information Literacy and Digcomp principles as well as Bloom’s taxonomy. The whole project called into question the hidden interests of those fabricating or abusing audiovisual figures. It provoked sensibility to current problems, reflection, idea negotiation, the unveiling of deepfakes, speculation, reasoning, response to attitudes and overall accountability for learning.

Students got actively immersed, applying multiliteracies, acquiring beneficial skills, and gradually scaling up their thinking levels. Getting initially updated by videos on television and YouTube/TikTok channels, they framed new information around ordinary habits, rendering practices more meaningful. All three clips featured dynamic scenes. The first one helped sixth-graders correlate the event with the real world (the Russia-Ukraine conflict). The element of surprise excited them, allowing feelings manifestation and various explanations. Distinguishing authors, their aspirations, and their intended audience caught everyone’s attention. Individuals’ sociocultural backgrounds and subjectivities surfaced through their numerous perspectives. Approval of diverse stances ascribed a sense of belonging. Uncovering the original video’s goal (to protest) fostered an inquisitive mind about the profits of adaptation. Meeting the term “deepfakes” opened new horizons. Recalling equivalent occurrences of bodies-exposure complemented the awakening regarding ulterior motives behind the exploitation of dramatic incidents. Comprehending the activity objectives advanced their fulfillment. Summarizing the situation in writing granted learners the pleasure of imparting both facts and theories to genuine addressees. The second video clip supplemented the notion of television/online hazards. The impact of deepfakes was further deepened. The third clip added to the request for alertness towards deepfakes. Analyzing the ideational, interactional or textual metafunctions (in harmony with Halliday’s and Kress & van Leeuwen’s principles) contributed to the association of visual layout to authors’ plans. Comparisons among inspected material reinforced beliefs. Discussing trust in news/online video clips was crucial to adopting subsequent security measures or reaction types.

Generating wordclouds constituted considerable vocabulary incorporation and efficient handling of color and graphics. Posting downloaded images of wordclouds on the LMS wall revealed technological familiarization. Supplying comments complied with the DigComp Framework.

Separate group synthesis formats (individuals, dyads, groups, whole class) and distinct roles matching personal styles, inclinations, or L2 readiness encouraged productive diversity. Flexibility to select duties liberated participants, attributing autonomy and inspiration. Time-place independency accelerated task execution and “many-to-many” dialogue configurations. Searching on recommended sites prevented sixth-graders from browsing questionable spaces. Evaluating sources and content expanded evasion of deception. Keeping notes aided the composition of short paragraphs and conclusion-drawing concerning the topic. Drafting on a joint e-pad (Framapad) facilitated collaboration even from a distance. Authentic implementation of relative words and conventions was broached. Uploading discovered video clips on the LMS digital wall, placing and replying to observations confirmed adherence to netiquette rules. Ensuing class projection promoted examination of the issue in different modes and from different angles, disproving the right-wrong exclusivity. Assisting peers enlarged interaction among working partners, establishing a climate of acceptance. Integrating shared wisdom, and recognizing the evolution of thinking refined collective intelligence.

The ability to utilize available resources was substantiated. Building a presentation on deepfakes and laying out image/audio/text alterations, possible reasons and suggestions cultivated linguistic, critical, information, and digital literacy skills. Deployment of teacher’s passwords safeguarded private details. What is more, aiming at public well-being illustrated empathy and responsibility, accrediting contributors with the power to influence happenings. The ways in which technology can be tallied with interests and illuminate understatements were attested. Synthesizing multimodal texts heightened multidimensional meaning-making and communication. Inventiveness soared. Hyperlinking or referring to mental rights showed acknowledgment of file derivation. Rather than competing, learners allied with each other, attempting to combat a common enemy (cyberthreats). Displaying on Canva and in plenary eased the spread of ideas. Assessment served formative purposes with class members supporting one another. Critiquing pieces, with a view to upgrading them, demonstrated embracement of evidence, ethos, and co-creation spirit. Traditional test-taking which narrows cognitive range was overcome since qualities such as emotions or imagination were combined. Appraising product effectiveness upon rubrics and conforming to criteria exhibited fairness and realization of what counts as good work. Multiple interpretations were thought-provoking and more cherished. Prospective rather than judgmental feedback was leading to perfection and “mastery” [28] at an individual pace. Satisfaction was nurtured out of engagement in truthful assignments (inherent stimulus). Pupils began turning proud of their peers’ achievements on top of their own. Knowledge was mutually constructed instead of being horizontally transmitted or superficially absorbed. Measurement reached higher-order levels, rating artifacts and their social provenance.

Defending or opposing deepfakes on a debate, facing dilemmas, hypothesizing, securing one’s positions, and arriving at decisions helped compromise conflicting understandings and voices. Respect for classmates’ insights and tolerance to mixed discourse styles validated social besides linguistic competence, setting the grounds for equity and inclusion. Reflecting, stipulating opinions on tasks, strategies, and outcomes via electronic questionnaires amplified metacognition. Sixth-graders became aware that results incite teachers to design better activities, and themselves to ameliorate performance and avoid negative factors. Identity transformation and modification of relationships between teacher-learner, learner-learner, and learner-content was witnessed, shifting the balance of agency on students who gain thus ownership of their learning.

The EFL teacher as a facilitator, monitored and supervised behavior. Allowing a variety of tasks and strategies, giving pupils opportunities to participate, and granting them power, she prompted them to shape their development as global citizens and to increase their self-confidence. The provision of scaffolding corresponded to children’s capacities and experiences. All in all, pursued practices raised independence and self-reliance.

Conclusions

Goal-oriented pedagogy may endorse partnerships between teachers and students; the leveraging of digital tools may boost autonomy and accountability. The applied scenario advanced new understandings, coverage of individual needs and preferences, inclusion of shy pupils and low attainers, class cooperation as well as increased confidence and self-regulation by situational requirements.

Real-life instances, clear input language, and coordination fostered motivation and ingenuity. Information Literacy principles and Digcomp descriptors, aligned with Bloom’s Taxonomy, connected objectives to practices. Sixth-graders assumed initiative perceiving choices. They carried on both within and beyond school boundaries and timetables. They collaborated, appreciating group-work benefits (enhanced data processing, open-mindedness to unique subjectivities). They investigated, located sources, categorized content, and detected deepfakes. They exploited dictionaries, classmates or teacher to convey the main concepts in the target language. They discussed, exchanged estimations, negotiated, analyzed functions and interests, interpreted figures according to their own background, and pronounced resolutions. They found ways to get protected from fabricated news as much as possible and express their voice. They familiarized themselves with several applications and generated multimodal artifacts. They furnished and responded to constructive feedback, praised peers, reflected upon mistakes, and transformed texts. Proud of outcomes and caring for the common welfare, they disseminated their experiences to broader audiences, becoming resources themselves. They evaluated each other’s products and their social origin upon rubrics, corroborating critical disposition and unbiased assessment. Through questionnaires they reviewed steps, tactics, difficulties, and accomplishments, cultivating thus metacognition and acknowledgment that learning “comes not in isolation but in interaction with others” [29]. They agreed that transferring skills to other settings might help them to cope with multifaceted challenges in the new information age.

As the great poet Dylan Thomas said, “Do not go gentle into that good night”, we shall not let darkness prevail. It is the school’s duty to prepare the young generation for 21st-century citizenship. Teachers should be supported in getting acquainted with the latest methodological trends by means of continuous professional development. If they want to assist learners in harnessing technology, confronting risks, escaping deceit, and appearing into light, change is due.