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This project evaluated the behavior of the electrochemical corrosion resistance of AISI 304 Stainless Steel as reinforcement in conventional concrete, elaborated based on the method ACI 211.1, with a water/cement = 0.65 ratio. The samples were in the presence of water and a 5% CaCl2 solution for more than 160 days, the first environment representing a control medium and the second representing an aggressive medium. On the other hand, the electrochemical technique of linear polarisation resistance (Rp) was implemented for the determination of the intensity of corrosion current Icorr and the measure of corrosion potencial Ecorr, in accordance with the ASTM C-876-15 method. As a result, Ecorr and Icorr values were obtained, demonstrating a better performance against corrosion in the presence of a high level of chlorides when using AISI 304 Stainless Steel.

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Introduction

Currently, hydraulic concrete is the most widely implemented construction material worldwide due to its usefulness for the creation of various structural elements of the infrastructure [1]–[4]. Although concrete was originally thought to have unlimited durability, over the years, several researchers have demonstrated that one of the main sources of the decrease in concrete structures’ durability is the corrosion damage of reinforcing steel, even though the complex and heterogeneous structure of reinforced concrete [5]–[9].

Corrosion of reinforcing steel presents different deterioration causes, one of them being the chloride attack; such chloride ions can be found in the concrete mixture or be present in the environment where the structure is located. Furthermore, those ions can be the cause of localized corrosion of reinforcing steel, producing precipitate and unanticipated failure to the structure [10]–[13].

On the other hand, corrosion of reinforced concrete structures is considered an issue of main importance not only at economic but also at a social level; due to this, diverse studies have been carried out in order to reduce the consequences of such phenomenon, providing different types of solutions, being one of the most important the substitution of the AISI 1018 steel by stainless steel, the last one demonstrating a better behavior in the presence of structures built in places exposed to marine environments or where a high level of chloride iones exist [14]–[16].

Therefore, this project evaluated the anticorrosive efficiency of AISI 304 stainless Steel and AISI 1018 Steel, both present in conventional concrete mixtures, when being in the presence of a 5% CaCl2 solution, representing a highly aggressive exposure medium.

Materials and Methods

Materials

Design and Dosage of Concrete Sample

Based on the ACI 211.1. method, the design, and dosage for the concrete samples were elaborated [17].

The tests listed in Table I were according to the ASTM standards [18]–[21]; consequently, it was obtained the proportioning of the concrete sample.

Materials (kg) Coarse Fine
aggregate aggregate
Specific Mass (MES) g/cm3 2.32 2.84
Bulk Volumetric Mass (BVM) kg/m3 1380
Absorption (%) 2.45 3.26
Module of fineness 2.70
Maximum Size Nominal (TMN) ¾″
Table I. Characteristics of Aggregates

For the elaboration of the concrete mixture, it was implemented a ratio w/c = 0.65 (Table II).

Materials Concrete mixture
Water 205
CPC 30R 315
Coarse aggregate 869
Fine aggregate 824
Table II. Proportion of the Concrete Mixture in kg for m3

Method

Characteristics of Reinforcing Steel

Two AISI 304 and AISI 1018 steel bars were embedded in each specimen, one acting as a working electrode (WE) and the other as the auxiliary electrode (AE). A fluorocarbon tape strip with a length of 5 cm was placed on the superior part of the bar, in order to prevent differential aeration zones, salt concentrations, or crevice corrosion; additionally, epoxy paint was used to paint certain areas in order to have zones vulnerable to corrosion, as presented in the literature, as shown in Fig. 1 [22].

Fig. 1. Reinforcing steel-characteristics.

Nomenclature of the Samples

A determined nomenclature was implemented for the analysis of Ecorr and Icorr values of AISI 304 Stainless Steel and AISI 1018, which is shown in Table III.

Specimen
304-MC
1018-C
304-MS
1018-MS
1018-MC
304-CC
1018-CC
Table III. Nomenclature Study Samples

• 304–AISI 304

• 1018–AISI 1018

• MC–Control medium (water)

• CC–Aggressive medium (solution at 5% CaCl2)

Electrochemical Measurements

In accordance with the ASTM G59 standard, the arrangement of the Electrochemical cell was carried out, implementing the Linear Polarization Resistance technique for the evaluation of the corrosion current intensity (Icorr). Regarding the corrosion potential, a sweep potential of ±20 mV was used for the test, as reported in the literature [23]. Prismatic samples were used for the corrosion test, see Fig. 2. The electrochemical cell with two WE (bars AISI 304 and AISI 1018 steel) and one auxiliary electrode (AE) with a 1/8″ AISI 304 stainless steel bar.

Fig. 2. Reinforcing steel.

In other electrochemical techniques, the three-electrode arrangement is also used; however, it is used more in different industrial areas than in the steel-concrete system see Fig. 3. The evaluation of Ecorr and Icorr was during a term of 150 days.

Fig. 3. Specimen of concrete for corrosion test.

Quality Control Test in Fresh and Hardened of Concrete Mixture

The test for concrete samples was performed based on the ONNCCE and ASTM standards [24]–[27] (Table IV).

Test Concrete mixture
Slump, cm 8
Temperature, °C 18
Density, kg/m3 2164
F’c, kg/cm2 226
Table IV. Characteristics of Sample

Exposure of Samples to Solution at 5% CaCl2

In order to evaluate the electrochemical behavior of the samples MC and CC, they were exposed for more than 160 days to two different environments, a control medium (water) and an aggressive medium (solution at 5% of CaCl2), this one representing those environments where reinforced concrete structures are built and also places with a high concentration level of chlorides, such as contaminated soils with sewage, soils where agrochemicals have been used, sewage treatment plants, as well as industrial environments, etc.

Results and Discussion

Corrosion Potential (Ecorr)

The value ranges of Ecorr indicated by the ASTM C876-15 standard are presented in Table V, [28] in order to interpret and evaluate the obtained results of the corrosion potential monitoring of reinforcing Steel in reinforced concrete structures as regards the obtained results will be interpreted according to this standard, including one more range, the one of severe corrosion, according to the literature.

Corrosion potentials mV vs. Cu/CuSO4
<−500 Severe corrosion
<−350 90% of corrosion risk
−350 to −200 Uncertainty of corrosion risk
>−200 10% of corrosion risk
Table V. Corrosion Potential in Reinforced Concrete (Ecorr)

The obtained results are presented in Fig. 4, with regard to the monitoring of the corrosion potential Ecorr of concrete samples reinforced with AISI 304 and AISI 1018 steel, samples 304-MC and 1018-CCSS, respectively, showing that during the curing state of specimen 304-MC, this presents corrosion potentials ranging from −170 mV to −192 mV, maintaining throughout the monitoring period a stable behavior, with more positive values than −200 mV, representing 10% of corrosion risk.

Fig. 4. Behaviour of Ecorr in concrete in presence of water.

On the other hand, regarding the concrete specimen reinforced with AICI 1018 steel, 1018-MC, it was obtained that during the curing state, such specimen presented Ecorr values of −358 mV, behavior that indicates a 90% of corrosion risk and subsequently obtained higher values; presenting for day 28 of the monitoring a nobler value −292 mV, performance related to the creation of the passive layer; in other words, it represents a tendency towards passivation over time. Presenting Ecorr values between −190 mV and −230 mV, behaviour developed due being exposed to a non-aggressive control medium, as reported on the literature [29].

Fig. 5 shows the electrochemical behavior of reinforced samples, 304-CC, and 1018-CC, at being exposed to an aggressive environment (solution with 5% of CaCl2) for more than 150 days.

Fig. 5. Behaviour of Ecorr in concrete in presence of 5% CaCl2 solution.

Specimen 304-CC reported during its curing stage potentials of −154 to −162 µA/cm2, in order to maintain during all the monitoring period values of Ecorr more positive than −200 mV, on average of −190 mV to −170 mV, values that, according to ASTM 876-15 standard indicate a 10% of corrosion risk.

On the other hand, sample 1018-CC reported during the curing state potentials of −389 mV to −371 mV, reporting less negative values from day 42 to day 78 of the monitoring; nevertheless, from the 84th day, a tendency of more negative values is observed, in a range of −390 mV to −412 mV. Obtaining at the end of the monitoring potentials of Ecorr of −412 mV and −421 mV, for days 140 and 156 of the monitoring, respectively, values that according to the standard indicate a 90% corrosion risk. As a result, a better performance from specimens reinforced with AISI 304 steel can be appreciated at being exposed for more than 150 days to an aggressive environment, a behavior reported in the literature [30].

Corrosion Potential (Icorr)

The interpretation and analysis of the obtained results from the corrosion rate Icorr were carried out based on the indicated in Durar network handbook [31], which relates the obtained value of Icorr with the corrosion level presented in the reinforced specimens (304-CC and 1018-CC), at being exposed to a control medium and an aggressive medium, Table VI resumes the interpretation of corrosion level.

Corrosion rate (Icorr) µA/cm2 Level of corrosion
<0.1 Despicable
0.1–0.5 Moderate
0.5 to 1 High
>1 Very high
Table VI. Level of Corrosion According to Icorr

In Fig. 6, the results correspond to the monitoring of the current intensity Icorr (corrosion rate) of the samples 304-MC and 1018-MC. For the specimen, 304-MC have obtained values of Icorr of 0.038 on 14 days, decreasing to 0.029 µA/cm2 on day 28, common behavior during the curing state. Observing that tendency until day 56, reaching an Icorr of 0.011; subsequently remaining with a stable tendency during the whole monitoring period, with Icorr values of 0.009 to 0.01, lower Icorr values, approximately ten times, than 0.1, being this a limit between a level of moderate corrosion and despicable; in other words, of absence of corrosion or the passivation of the system steel-concrete evaluated, in relation to what is described in Table VI.

Fig. 6. Behaviour of Icorr in concrete in the presence of water.

In relation to sample 1018-MC, a similar performance can be appreciated, initially reporting elevated Icorr values and later reaching values related to a despicable corrosion level as time went by; however, during the curing state, specimen, 1018-MC presented a behaviur ten times better in comparison with specimen 304-MC. The last one reported values of Icorr equal to 0.30 µA/cm2 and 0.20 µA/cm2 for days 14 and 28, respectively. Reaching a 0.10 value for day 98 and a minimum value of 0.07 when the study, performance that corresponds to the established in the literature at evaluating the corrosion of samples of reinforced concrete in a control medium or non-aggressive.

Fig. 7 shows that sample 1018-CC reported values that went from 0.3 µA/cm2 to 0.2 µA/cm2 during the curing stage, observing a decrease in its values from day 42, maintaining such a tendency throughout the study, in a range of 0.13 to 0.16. Reporting at the end of the study values of 0.1587 µA/cm2 and 0.1892 µA/cm2 for the days 140 and 154, respectively, behavior associated with a moderate corrosion level.

Fig. 7. Behaviour of Icorr in concrete in the presence of 5% CaCl2 solution.

Related to sample 304-CC steel, lower values than the reported for specimen 1018-CC were obtained, observing at day 14 to 28 values of 0.30 to 0.25, range of values presented throughout the monitoring; at the end of the study values of 0.024 and 0.038 were reported on day 140 and 154 of exposure to an aggressive environment, respectively.

In comparison with specimen 1018-CC, it is observed that specimen 304-CC offers a better resistance against corrosion at being exposed to a solution with 5% of CaCl2, presenting an optimum performance with values of Icorr that correspond to a despicable corrosion level. Therefore, the implementation of AISI 304 stainless steel is supported for the purpose of elaborating civil structures made with reinforced concrete, thus achieving the construction of civil works that fulfill the necessary requirements and also with an increase in its durability [32], [33].

Conclusions

The samples of concrete reinforced with AISI 304 steel, at being exposed for more than 150 days to an aggressive medium (solution at 5% of CaCl2), show a higher resistance to corrosion in comparison with the samples elaborated with AISI 1018 steel. Reporting the specimen 304-CC had more positive values of Ecorr than −200 mV, which, according to the standard, corresponds to a 10% of corrosion risk; on the other hand, the sample 1018-CC reported values associated with 90% of corrosion risk.

Furthermore, in relation to the corrosion rate test, the sample reinforced with AISI 304 steel reported throughout the monitoring values of Icorr associated with a despicable corrosion level. On the contrary, specimen 1018-CC presented values reallocated to a moderate corrosion level, consequently demonstrating higher efficiency in the concrete with embedded AISI 304 steel.

Based on what has been discussed, the intelligent use of stainless steel AISI 304 in the construction of structural elements of reinforced concrete exposed to aggressive environments where high concentrations of chlorides exist, such as contaminated soils, sewage treatment plants, marine environments, etc.

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